Harassment: Somali Social Media, Digital Violence Against Women/by:
Abdullahi M Hassan, LLM and Ali A Adan, MScs, Risk Management
and Insurance Programs
Date: November 10, 2025
Abstract
Digital platforms have rapidly reshaped communication across Somalia and opened
new social spaces for women. Many young women now share their voices online,
build small businesses, speak about their experiences, and participate in public
conversations. However, these platforms expose Somali women to extreme
harassment, bullying, defamation, sexualized attacks, and character assassinations
(UNESCO, 2025). Somali women are already battling with widespread physical
violence, rape, and gender-based abuse, and digital platforms increase these risks
exponentially. This research examines the patterns of abusive language targeting
Somali women on TikTok, Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube, and Snapchat. Using
lexical analysis, sentiment scoring, keyword frequency monitoring, and observational
study of live-streamed content. This paper identifies platform-specific risks and high-
intensity harassment environments. Findings indicate that TikTok live streams are
hazardous for young women due to gaps in moderation systems in Somali language
content. Live streamers often demand that their fellow streamers speak only Somali
to avoid disruptions and comply with TikTok’s streaming guidelines (waryaa Somali
ku hadal). Snapchat is also used for direct harassment, private threats, and sharing
compromising images. These images occur 100% of the time: screenshots and
shared private stories with other users without the owner’s knowledge.Recommendations include culturally informed moderation, legal protections, digital
literacy, and support networks for women at risk (Dr Nadia Al Sakkaf, N. A. S, 2024).
Keywords: Somali women, social media, online harassment, defamation, character
assassination, TikTok, Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Snapchat, digital violence
Introduction
The growth of social media in Somalia has created opportunities that earlier
generations did not have. Young women can now express themselves, share their
talents, and take part in discussions that shape public opinion. TikTok and Facebook
have become daily meeting places for millions, while WhatsApp and Snapchat
influence private communication and group behaviour. In many ways, these
platforms have allowed Somali women to extend their presence beyond the limits of
their physical environment.
However, the same digital spaces that provide visibility also expose women to new
forms of harm. Somalia has struggled with extreme rates of gender-based violence
for many years, and institutions are still developing the capacity to respond
effectively. When this reality moves online, it creates a second layer of danger.
According to AllAfrica (2025), women continue to face sexual violence and physical
harm, and weak legal frameworks make it difficult to obtain justice. As a result, digital
harassment often finds women who are already vulnerable.
Digital violence in Somalia takes many forms. It includes threats, sexual comments,
public shaming, rumours, religious policing, and attacks on reputation. Sometimes a
single comment can spread very quickly and damage a woman’s standing in hercommunity. The Guardian (2024) shows that this kind of harassment has become
common and can have severe psychological consequences.
Online harassment should not be seen as a separate problem. It is connected to
cultural norms in which women carry the burden of family honour and moral
reputation. When a woman becomes visible online, she enters a space where these
norms are enforced through collective judgment. Social media magnifies what
already exists. This research examines how harassment happens, which platforms
are most involved, and what can be done to reduce the harm faced by Somali
women.
Research Questions
1. What are the patterns and intensity of online harassment targeted at Somali
women across TikTok, Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube, and Snapchat?
2. Which platforms present the highest risks for digital harassment and why?
3. How do cultural norms and language-specific content influence the nature of
harassment?
4. What interventions can effectively mitigate digital violence against Somali
women?
Literature Review
Scholars have documented digital harassment as a global problem that affects
women in many societies. Citron (2014) shows how online spaces can become
hostile environments where misogyny spreads quickly. Henry and Powell (2015)highlight the connection between online abuse and real-world gender inequality.
Jane (2016) notes that digital misogyny often reflects deeper social attitudes.
In Somali environments, online behaviour cannot be separated from cultural
expectations. Ali (2021) explains that women who speak publicly may face criticism
grounded in ideas of morality and honour. Mantilla’s (2013) work on gender trolling
helps explain organised attacks that target women who gain visibility.
TikTok introduces additional risks because its algorithm amplifies content rapidly,
and its moderation tools struggle with languages like Somali. Newton (2022) and
Horowitz (2023) show how young women face frequent harassment on TikTok due
to poor content detection. Facebook and WhatsApp are widely used in Somalia for
sharing information, but they also become tools for gossip and reputation attacks.
BBC News (2023) and Reuters (2024) illustrate how misinformation spreads quickly
on these platforms. Snapchat introduces private risks because its temporary
messages encourage users to send threats or share sexualised content without
leaving evidence. VOA Africa (2023) and AllAfrica (2025) warn that this type of harm
is growing.
UNICEF Somalia (2024) reports that girls face particular dangers online, including
intimidation, pressure, and threats. The lack of guidance, combined with the stigma
surrounding sexual reputational harm, puts young women at high risk. International
human rights standards such as CEDAW and the Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence Against Women place responsibility on states to protect women from
violence, including in digital environments.This study builds on this literature but contributes new data explicitly focused on the
Somali online ecosystem. It provides an empirical overview of the types of
harassment Somali women face and the cultural logic behind it.
Methodology
This study analysed 13,300 social media posts directed at Somali women over a six-
month period. Data were collected from TikTok (7,000 entries), Facebook (2,300
entries), YouTube (2,000 entries), WhatsApp (1,000 entries), and Snapchat (1,000
entries). Posts were selected using a stratified random sampling approach to ensure
representation across gender, age groups, and content types. Somali language and
Somali English code-mixed content were included.
Data Analysis Techniques:
1. Lexical Categorisation: Posts were classified as sexual reputation attacks,
insults, moral, religious shaming, gossip, or family dishonour threats. Inter-
rater reliability was tested on 10% of the sample (Cohen’s kappa = 0.87).
Hand, M. J (1993).
2. Sentiment Scoring: Hostility, aggression, and threat intensity were quantified
using NLP software and manually cross-checked.
3. Keyword Frequency Analysis: Key terms, including Garoob daalan, Fuusto
ku riix, Cabtooy, Fadeexad, Feminist, Kufsiga, Dil, kabalaari, and Qarxis, were
tracked.
4. Observational Study: TikTok live streams, WhatsApp groups, and Snapchat
messaging were observed under ethical protocols ensuring anonymisation
and no direct identification of victims (Markham & Buchanan, 2012).Results
Platform Distribution
Platform Comments Collected Percentage of Dataset
TikTok 7000 52.6%
Facebook 2300 17.3%
YouTube 2000 15.0%
WhatsApp 1000 7.5%
Snapchat 1000 7.5%
Observation: TikTok exhibited the highest frequency and severity of harassment;
Snapchat and WhatsApp facilitated private or targeted attacks.
Types of Harassment
Category Count Percentage
Sexual reputation attacks 7305 54.9%
Insults and name-calling 2196 16.5%
Moral religious shaming 1316 9.9%
Gossip and rumour spreading 1091 8.2%
Family dishonour threats 651 4.9%
Private threats (Snapchat, WhatsApp) 741 5.5%
Keyword-Based FindingsKeyword Mentions
Negative Sentiment
(%)
Notes
Garoob
daalan
1500 60 Sexualized harassment
Fuusto ku riix 1200 55
Character shaming false
narrative
Cabtooy 350 72 Gossip reputation attacks
Fadeexad 850 85 High intensity abuse
Feminist 200 90 Attacks on advocacy
Kufsiga 1000 98 Sexual assault threats
Dil 715 100 Direct murder threats
Ka balaari 500 80 Sexualized shaming threats
Qarxis 500 95 Violent threats
Observation: High negative sentiment indicates pervasive hostile online abuse,
particularly on TikTok and Snapchat.
TikTok and Snapchat Analysis
• Nearly all TikTok live streams contained sexualized, abusive, or demeaning
comments.
• Somali language use bypassed automated moderation systems.
• Aggressors shared women’s photos in groups to humiliate and dehumanise
victims.• Snapchat allowed private harassment via ephemeral images, videos, and
direct messaging.
• Moderation was largely ineffective, exposing women to immediate and
sustained harassment.
Discussion
The findings show how digital violence in Somalia grows out of broader social norms.
Women’s behaviour is closely linked to ideas of honour and reputation. When a
woman becomes visible online, she becomes a subject of judgment from strangers
and acquaintances. Social media makes this process faster and more public.
Sexualised insults, accusations, and threats reflect more profound anxieties about
women’s autonomy and presence in public life.
TikTok’s rapid comment system and weak Somali language moderation make it a
challenging environment for women. Insults can appear in large numbers within
minutes, and the tone often becomes more aggressive as more viewers join.
Snapchat and WhatsApp present private forms of harm that are equally dangerous.
Sharing a woman’s image without her consent can destroy her reputation, and fear
of such exposure can silence women entirely.
The consequences include psychological stress, fear of public participation, social
withdrawal, and long-term damage to self-confidence. These patterns match findings
from UNICEF Somalia (2024) and other international studies. Digital violence should
therefore be seen as part of the continuum of violence that Somali women face
throughout their lives. International human rights standards require states to prevent
this harm and hold perpetrators accountable.Recommendations
1. Culturally informed moderation: Employ Somali-speaking moderators and AI
capable of detecting code-mixed language abuse.
2. Digital literacy campaigns: Educate women on online safety, reporting, and
risk mitigation and raise awareness.
3. Legal protections: Develop legislation addressing digital harassment, threats,
defamation and non-consensual image sharing.
4. Support networks: Provide counselling, peer support, and legal assistance
and provide a safe place to give them comfort.
5. Live stream and private platform monitoring: Implement proactive
interventions on TikTok, Facebook, YouTube, Snapchat, and WhatsApp.
6. Continuous research: Monitor social media to identify emerging patterns of
abuse.
Conclusion
Digital violence in Somalia is now a significant challenge that affects the lives of
many women. The combination of cultural expectations, weak legal protections, and
rapidly expanding digital communication has created conditions where harassment
spreads easily. TikTok, Facebook, WhatsApp, Snapchat, and YouTube give women
space to express themselves, yet these same platforms expose them to threats that
can cause serious harm.
Protecting Somali women online requires a combination of legal reform, platform
responsibility, education, and community action. Addressing this issue is essentialnot only for women’s safety but also for their ability to participate in public life and
contribute to society.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Hiil Center for Peace and
Democracy (Hiil-CPD), Hirshabelle’s Commission for Refugees and IDPs (HCRI),
and the Somali Youth Volunteers Association (SOYVA) for their invaluable support
and collaboration throughout this research. Their assistance in facilitating community
engagement, providing contextual insights, and supporting ethical data collection
was instrumental to completing this study.
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